05). When questioned on return, of the 106 interviewed, 80 (75%) had taken chemoprophylaxis and chemoprophylaxis use was significantly greater among those who had attended a travel clinic (55/64; 86%) than among those who had been only to a

AZD6244 travel agent (25/42; 60%) (p < 0.05). Among those taking chemoprophylaxis, 15% had taken chloroquine, which is inadequate for sub-Saharan Africa. The travel agent attendees were much more likely to be using chloroquine alone (13/42; 31%) than the 3/64 (5%) in the travel clinic group. Only 29% had used appropriate chemoprophylaxis (correct drug, dosage, and adherence including after return), more (p < 0.05) from the travel clinic (26/64:41%) group than the travel agent Dactolisib cohort (5/42; 12%). Several factors influencing the use of chemoprophylaxis among VFRs have been proposed. These include cost11,12; fear of side effects11; uncertainty about drug efficacy, either as a result of “getting used to them” or connected to mosquito resistance12; feeling that the drugs are only effective against a more serious “type” of malaria; and distrust of doctors.12 Practical concerns include the bitter

taste and side effects experienced12; traveling at short notice11; or for short periods of time.12 The opportunity for sharing chemoprophylaxis with friends and relatives living in the malarious area10,12 may also influence correct adherence when chemoprophylaxis is obtained. A list of reasons for not “being vaccinated” (a˜proxy term used

for taking pre-travel advice) was described in the Dutch study.11 In this study, more than 10 participants mentioned never taking preventive measures and buying medication in West Africa. Between five STK38 and nine respondents gave their reasons as: having had all vaccinations; not easily getting sick; it not being important or necessary. Less than five reported: “only taking tablets”; it being only necessary for children; cure being cheaper or easier to get; not knowing it was needed; the room being insect free; using traditional methods instead; avoidance of unhygienic food or water; a belief that the individual cannot die now; and protection from God. There have been several calls for more research to be undertaken to understand the reasons for the high incidence of imported malaria in the African community, and for targeted interventions to be implemented to reduce this.2,13,14 Despite this, although many papers have discussed clinical issues in managing cases of imported malaria or described the epidemiology, very little qualitatively focused primary research, exploring factors that might influence the low use of preventive measures against malaria in these communities, has been carried out. Those studies which were identified were small scale, of differing designs, and the variation in methodologies used hindered true comparison. This means generalizable conclusions are difficult to make. Comparisons are also hampered by a lack of uniformity in definitions used.

“
“Efforts Trametinib ic50 are underway to develop more

effective and safer animal feed additives. Entomopathogenic fungi can be considered practical expression platforms of functional genes within insects which have been used as animal feed additives. In this work, as a model, the enhanced green fluorescent protein (egfp) gene was expressed in yellow mealworms, Tenebrio molitor by highly infective Beauveria bassiana ERL1170. Among seven test isolates, ERL1170 treatment showed 57.1% and 98.3% mortality of mealworms 2 and 5 days after infection, respectively. The fungal transformation vector, pABeG containing the egfp gene, was inserted into the genomic DNA of ERL1170 using the restriction enzyme-mediated

integration method. This resulted in the generation of the transformant, Bb-egfp#3, which showed the highest level of fluorescence. Bb-egfp#3-treated mealworms gradually turned dark brown, and in 7-days mealworm sections showed a strong fluorescence. This did not occur in the wild-type strain. This work suggests that further valuable proteins can be efficiently produced in this mealworm-based PF-02341066 concentration fungal expression platform, thereby increasing the value of mealworms in the animal feed additive industry. “
“A carotenogenesis gene cluster from the purple nonsulfur photosynthetic bacterium Rhodobacter azotoformans CGMCC 6086 was cloned. A total of eight carotenogenesis genes (crtA,crtI,crtB,tspO,crtC,crtD,crtE, and crtF) were located in two separate regions within the genome, a 4.9 kb region containing four clustered genes of crtAIB – tspO and a 5.3 kb region containing four clustered genes of crtCDEF. The organization was unusual for a carotenogenesis gene cluster in purple photosynthetic bacteria. A gene encoding phytoene desaturase (CrtI) from Rba. azotoformans was expressed in Escherichia coli. The recombinant CrtI could catalyze both

three- and four-step desaturations of phytoene to produce neurosporene and lycopene, and the relative contents Selleckchem Baf-A1 of neurosporene and lycopene formed by CrtI were approximately 23% and 75%, respectively. Even small amounts of five-step desaturated 3,4-didehydrolycopene could be produced by CrtI. This product pattern was novel because CrtI produced only neurosporene leading to spheroidene pathway in the cells of Rba. azotoformans. In the in vitro reaction, the relative content of lycopene in desaturated products increased from 19.6% to 62.5% when phytoene reduced from 2.6 to 0.13 μM. The results revealed that the product pattern of CrtI might be affected by the kinetics. Carotenoids are a subfamily of the isoprenoids and are widely present in nature (Umeno et al., 2005). In photosynthetic bacteria, carotenoids play important roles in light-harvesting systems as well as in protecting the organism from photo-oxidative damage (Britton, 2008).

Few data are available on the risk of congenital malformation with first trimester exposure to the newer therapies telbivudine (FDA category B) and entecavir (FDA Category C). The XL765 outcome of the pregnancy should be reported to the Interferon Pregnancy and Antiretroviral Pregnancy Registries. 6.1.5 As there is no evidence of any adverse effect on maternal or neonatal health if women become pregnant while taking ART active against HBV, treatment should be continued. Grading: 1C For

tenofovir, emtricitabine and lamivudine, APR [49] and the Development of Antiretroviral Therapy Study (DART) have not identified any increased risk in prevalence or any specific pattern of anomaly, even when administered in the first trimester. Hence, when a patient becomes pregnant on an anti-HBV viral agent as part of their HAART (tenofovir, lamivudine or emtricitabine), as for HIV management, HAART should be continued. This is because the potential risk

to the fetus from drug exposure is outweighed by that of a hepatitis flare or liver disease progression if the drug(s) were to be discontinued in addition to HIV virological rebound and risk of MTCT. Because entecavir has activity against HIV, it is not recommended unless given with active HAART in a coinfected patient. Moreover, it has http://www.selleckchem.com/products/Sunitinib-Malate-(Sutent).html been found to have significant carcinogenic potential in animal studies and therefore its use as an antiviral drug for HBV during pregnancy should be avoided. Lamivudine has been extensively used, as has tenofovir and to a lesser extent emtricitabine, for the treatment of HIV mono-infection during pregnancy, and lamivudine and telbivudine have been used in HBV mono-infected pregnant women and all have been found to be safe. There are limited data on adefovir use in pregnancy and it is not recommended. Where it is being used in a woman for management of HBV but who does not require HIV treatment, this should be switched to tenofovir incorporated into her HAART regimen. In the context of coinfection during pregnancy where HAART is indicated, there is unlikely to be a situation where it would

be used instead of tenofovir. There is no Sirolimus manufacturer evidence of any adverse effect on maternal health if women become pregnant while taking tenofovir, lamivudine or emtricitabine: these drugs are recommended as NRTI choices in national [169] and international guidelines [154]. 6.1.6 In all HAV non-immune HBV coinfected women, HAV vaccine is recommended after the first trimester as per the normal schedule (0 and 6–12 months) unless the CD4 cell count is <300 cells/μL, when an additional dose may be indicated. Grading: 1D Immunization for HAV uses inactivated vaccines. Data for HAV vaccine in pregnancy are limited. Nevertheless, several guidelines indicate that pregnancy is not a contraindication for HAV immunization, including in HBV coinfected pregnant women [170],[171].

By the end of December 2007, at least 18.6% of the patients had died, 29% were alive and attending scheduled appointments, but most, 52.5%, were lost to follow-up. Surprisingly, the majority

of patients for whom no outcome information is available were those diagnosed in more recent years and therefore those that we would expect to be attending consultations at the respective NVP-LDE225 molecular weight clinics. Moreover, 63.3% of those patients were migrants of African origin. The reasons underlying such a high number of losses to follow-up needs further investigation. Social, economic and cultural factors highlight the need to develop special approaches for migrant populations and to promote migrant-sensitive health care. As the world’s population grows, migration and population mobility are PF 2341066 likely to increase [12, 13]. The incidence of HIV-2

infection is declining in West Africa but the increasing influx of migrants will probably maintain HIV-2 in Portugal and other countries. For example, in France, between January 2003 and June 2006, 186 HIV-2-infected patients were identified [22]. In Spain, from 1988 to 2006, a total of 146 HIV-2 infections were reported [23]. Up to 2007, 65 patients with HIV-2 (mono)infection were included in the Belgium–Luxembourg database [24]. The majority of HIV-2-infected patients identified in these countries were from a West African country. Also, the number of HIV (including HIV-2) infections acquired in West Africa and diagnosed in England, Wales and Northern Ireland has risen in recent years [25]. The same trend has been observed in the USA, where HIV-2 infection is considered to be rare. From 1985 to 1998, only 79 cases of HIV-2 infection were reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

(CDC). However, data from New York City showed that, between 1 June 2000 and 31 December 2008, 62 more people received a diagnosis of HIV-2 infection. The majority (60 of 62 individuals) were born in Africa Methane monooxygenase [26]. This highlights the need to discuss the impact of migration on national infectious disease epidemiology, of which HIV-2 is just one example. HIV-2 infection has been documented in Portugal since the early 1980s and its epidemiology appears to reflect changes in population movement. Our study suggests that the introduction of HIV-2 was related to the movements of soldiers and repatriates from African territories during the wars of independence and that migration and mobility of people from high-endemicity areas have, more recently, played a prominent role in the dynamics of HIV-2 infection. The creation of a Portuguese cohort of HIV-2-infected patients would be an important step towards a better understanding of these descriptive findings. We thank the many clinicians who have reported cases of HIV-2 infection and have assisted with the medical record review. We thank Patrícia Lourenço and Raquel Lucas for their relevant critiques and their support.

By the end of December 2007, at least 18.6% of the patients had died, 29% were alive and attending scheduled appointments, but most, 52.5%, were lost to follow-up. Surprisingly, the majority

of patients for whom no outcome information is available were those diagnosed in more recent years and therefore those that we would expect to be attending consultations at the respective Afatinib cost clinics. Moreover, 63.3% of those patients were migrants of African origin. The reasons underlying such a high number of losses to follow-up needs further investigation. Social, economic and cultural factors highlight the need to develop special approaches for migrant populations and to promote migrant-sensitive health care. As the world’s population grows, migration and population mobility are learn more likely to increase [12, 13]. The incidence of HIV-2

infection is declining in West Africa but the increasing influx of migrants will probably maintain HIV-2 in Portugal and other countries. For example, in France, between January 2003 and June 2006, 186 HIV-2-infected patients were identified [22]. In Spain, from 1988 to 2006, a total of 146 HIV-2 infections were reported [23]. Up to 2007, 65 patients with HIV-2 (mono)infection were included in the Belgium–Luxembourg database [24]. The majority of HIV-2-infected patients identified in these countries were from a West African country. Also, the number of HIV (including HIV-2) infections acquired in West Africa and diagnosed in England, Wales and Northern Ireland has risen in recent years [25]. The same trend has been observed in the USA, where HIV-2 infection is considered to be rare. From 1985 to 1998, only 79 cases of HIV-2 infection were reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

(CDC). However, data from New York City showed that, between 1 June 2000 and 31 December 2008, 62 more people received a diagnosis of HIV-2 infection. The majority (60 of 62 individuals) were born in Africa Celecoxib [26]. This highlights the need to discuss the impact of migration on national infectious disease epidemiology, of which HIV-2 is just one example. HIV-2 infection has been documented in Portugal since the early 1980s and its epidemiology appears to reflect changes in population movement. Our study suggests that the introduction of HIV-2 was related to the movements of soldiers and repatriates from African territories during the wars of independence and that migration and mobility of people from high-endemicity areas have, more recently, played a prominent role in the dynamics of HIV-2 infection. The creation of a Portuguese cohort of HIV-2-infected patients would be an important step towards a better understanding of these descriptive findings. We thank the many clinicians who have reported cases of HIV-2 infection and have assisted with the medical record review. We thank Patrícia Lourenço and Raquel Lucas for their relevant critiques and their support.

In this study, a soil-borne, glyphosate-resistant bacterium was selected and identified as Enterobacter. The EPSPS in this strain was found to have KPT330 been altered to a resistant one. A total of 42 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the glyphosate were screened using microarray techniques. Under treatment, argF, sdhA, ivbL, rrfA-H were downregulated, whereas the transcripts of speA, osmY, pflB, ahpC, fusA, deoA, uxaC, rpoD and a few ribosomal protein genes were upregulated. Data were verified by quantitative real-time PCR on selected

genes. All transcriptional changes appeared to protect the bacteria from glyphosate and associated osmotic, acidic and oxidative stresses. Many DEGs may have the potential to confer resistance to glyphosate alone, and some may be closely related to the shikimate pathway, reflecting the complex gene interaction network for glyphosate resistance. “
“Yersinia polynucleotide phosphorylase (PNPase), a 3’-5’ exoribonuclease, has been shown to affect growth during several stress responses. In E. coli, PNPase is one of the subunits of a multi-protein complex known as the degradosome, but also has degradosome-independent

functions. The carboxy–terminus of E. coli ribonuclease E (RNase E) serves as the scaffold upon which PNPase, enolase (a glycolytic enzyme), and RhlB helicase all have been shown to bind. In the yersiniae, only PNPase has thus far been shown to physically interact with RNase click here E. We show by bacterial two-hybrid and co-immunoprecipitation assays that RhlB and enolase also interact with RNase E. Interestingly, although PNPase is required for normal growth at cold temperatures, assembly of the yersiniae degradosome was not required. However, degradosome assembly was required for growth in the presence of reactive oxygen species. These data suggest that while the Y. pseudotuberculosis PNPase plays a role in the oxidative stress response through a degradosome-dependent mechanism, PNPase’s Y-27632 chemical structure role during cold stress is degradosome-independent.

2012 Federation of European Microbiological Societies. Published by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. All rights reserved “
“To examine why we failed in direct sequencing of rRNA gene internal transcribed spacer (ITS) in Pleurotus nebrodensis, we obtained monokaryons of P. nebrodensis (00489 and 00491) using a protoplast monokaryonization technique. PCR products of ITS amplifications were sequenced. There was a base pair insertion/deletion difference between the two nuclei of P. nebrodensis that led to failure in direct sequencing. Internal transcribed spacer regions (ITS1, ITS2, and 5.8S rRNA gene) of the nuclear ribosomal repeat are widely used in fungal systematics and phylogeny (Gardes & Bruns, 1993; Kårén et al., 1997; Cooke et al., 2000; Manter & Vivanco, 2007; Nilsson et al., 2009).

europaea BCCP (Em=+70, +130 mV) (Shimizu et al., 2001), which lacks the distal ligand for the heme molecule with the lowest reduction potential but not to that of R. capsulatus BCCP (Em=−190 to −310, +270 mV) (De Smet et al., 2001) and P. aeruginosa BCCP (Em=–330, +320 mV) (Ellfolk et al., 1983). Thus, relatively high Em value of the lowest potential of the heme would be explained by the fact that the amino acid sequence of QPO that apparently lacks distal ligand of the heme in the middle portion. This idea would be supported by the previous observation showing five-coordinated heme c exhibits higher Em value than that of six-coordinated

heme c (Marboutin et al., 2006). However, although five-coordinated heme c have lower extinction coefficient (Marboutin et al., 2006), the relative spectral contribution of the each heme in QPO was nearly same. Further experiment is needed BVD-523 solubility dmso to address the coordination of heme in QPO. In the present study, we established HIF inhibitor a system for the overproduction and purification of rQPO to build a base for biophysical research

on QPO. Moreover, we initially measured the midpoint electron potentials for all the heme molecules in the triheme peroxidase. Biochemical analysis for the triheme c peroxidase has recently been undertaken. The results of our study will trigger further studies on QPO, including mutant analyses, and will help elucidate the mechanism underlying quinol–protein interaction and/or interaction among the three heme molecules in

QPO. This work was supported by a Grant-in-Aid for Young Scientists Axenfeld syndrome (B) from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (#19791353 to E.T.) and by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (C) from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (# 21592346 to K.K.). “
“Brucellosis is a major zoonotic disease caused by pathogens of the genus Brucella. The eradication of brucellosis in domestic animals, associated with the prevention of human infection, can be attained through accurate diagnosis. However, the conventional serological diagnosis of brucellosis has limitations, particularly in detecting the infection period. Accordingly, the aim of this study was to determine reliable immunogenic proteins to detect Brucella abortus infection according to time course responses to aid in the appropriate management of this disease. Proteomic identification through two-dimensional electrophoresis (2DE), followed by immunoblotting, revealed 13, 24, and 55 immunodominant B. abortus 544 proteins that were reactive to sera from experimentally infected mice at early (10 days), middle (30 days), and late (60 days) infection periods, respectively. After excluding several spots reactive to sera from Yersinia enterocolitica O:9-infected and noninfected mice, 17 of the 67 immunodominant proteins were identified through MALDI-TOF MS.

Suspended chitin in test tubes was quantified by measuring its filling level as described previously (Jagmann et al., 2010). Samples for measuring chitin degradation products were centrifuged in 1.5-mL plastic BVD-523 clinical trial tubes at 16 100 g for 15 min at room temperature, and supernatants were stored at −20 °C until further analysis.

To determine chitin degradation products during incubation in cell-free supernatant of strain AH-1N, samples were centrifuged as described above. Supernatants were subsequently incubated at 100 °C for 5 min to inhibit chitinolytic enzymes. After a further centrifugation step, supernatants were transferred into new plastic tubes and stored at −20 °C until further analysis. Acetate, the monomer, dimer [N,N′-diacetylchitobiose

(Sigma)] and trimer [N,N′,N″-triacetylchitotriose (Sigma)] of GlcNAc were determined by ion-exclusion HPLC as described previously (Klebensberger et al., 2006). Ammonium Epigenetics Compound high throughput screening was determined as described previously (Gesellschaft Deutscher Chemiker, 1996). Chitinolytic enzyme activities during growth of strains AH-1N and 4D9 with suspended or embedded chitin were determined indirectly with 4-methyl-umbelliferone (4-MU) derivatized substrates (Colussi et al., 2005). Assays were performed in 96-well black microtiter plates (Nunc) and contained 10 μL of the respective sample and 90 μL of McIlvaine buffer (pH 7). Cell-free culture supernatant was obtained by centrifugation at 16 100 g for 15 min. To measure chitinolytic enzyme activity in the biofilm fraction, single agarose beads were washed in 500 μL medium B and homogenized with a plastic pestle in 100 μL of the same Histamine H2 receptor medium. Assays were started by adding 25 μM

of either 4-MU-N′-acetyl-β-d-glucosaminide (4-MU-GlcNAc; Sigma) for measuring chitobiase activities or 4-MU-N′,N″-diacetyl-β-d-chitobioside [4-MU-(GlcNAc)2; Sigma] for measuring chitinase activities. Enzyme activities were determined at room temperature by measuring the fluorescence of released 4-MU at 465 nm after exciting at 340 nm in a microplate reader (Genios, Tecan) over a time period of 4 min. Activities were calculated using a 4-MU standard fluorescence curve in the range of 0–20 μM. Protein concentrations in culture supernatants were determined using the Pierce BCA Protein Assay Kit (Thermo Scientific). To confirm that A. hydrophila strain AH-1N and Flavobacterium sp. strain 4D9 employed different mechanisms of chitin degradation, both strains were incubated with suspended and embedded chitin, respectively, as the sole source of carbon, nitrogen, and energy. With suspended chitin, strain AH-1N grew concomitant with chitin degradation and reached numbers of 1.5 × 109 CFUs mL−1 within 120 h (Fig. 1). Cleavage of 4-MU-(GlcNAc)2 was detected in cell-free culture supernatants with a specific activity of 120 mU (mg protein)−1, indicating the presence of a released chitinase.

3%, and in flooded pots, it was 16.3% (all significantly

different from the null hypothesis), indicating that there was a negative correlation between the competitiveness of the nonmotile mutant and vermiculite water content. Hence, we evaluated the competition for nodulation of all strains in the flooded condition. As shown in Table 2, the behavior of the mutants carrying one flagellum was similar as in field capacity (except LP 6866, which, although occupied 64.3% of nodules, did not deviate significantly from the null hypothesis due to higher experimental variability). As in field capacity, LP 3008 seemed to compete better than LP 3004 against its derivative without a thin flagellum. Meanwhile, the nonmotile double mutants

were again significantly less competitive than in field capacity. Bacterial swimming may be observed in semi-solid agar plates as a colony expansion a Selleck BMS-777607 SAR245409 in vivo few millimeters below the agar surface, and must not be confused with swarming, which occurs in plates of more concentrated agar where colonies of differentiated cells move on the surface (Harshey, 1994, 2003). Indeed, rhizobia mutants able to produce swimming halos, but swarming colonies were not described (Braeken et al., 2007; Nogales et al., 2010). Our results showing swimming in 0.3% agar indicated that the thin flagellum of B. japonicum is actively used for this motion, because LP 5844 (ΔfliC1-4, producing only the thin

flagellum) formed the widest swimming halo of all mutants. In addition, this strain tumbled more frequently than the wild type. In agreement with our results, Wolfe & Berg (1989) also reported that the swimming halo rate of expansion increases with Pregnenolone tumble frequency. Thin flagellum derepression in LP 3008 may also cause its faster spread in 0.3% agar; however, it does not explain why the LP 3008 mutant lacking this flagellum still formed wider swimming halos than the corresponding mutant in the LP 3004 background. In 0.3% agar, the consumption of nutrients and release of other chemicals by the rings of bacteria moving inside the medium creates a chemoattractant gradient (Adler, 1966). Thus, the higher chemotaxis of LP 3008 (Althabegoiti et al., 2008) may also contribute to its higher displacement. After characterizing the motility provided by each flagellum, we assessed their roles in the competition for nodulation in vermiculite. Although all mutants moved less than the parental strains in swimming plate assays, they were differently affected in their competitiveness for nodulation, which also depended on the water status of the vermiculite. While mutants lacking the thin flagellum were, in general, more competitive than the parental strains both at field capacity and in the flooded environment, the mutants lacking the thick flagellum were less competitive.

BbHet1 also had several unique morphological features: beige conidia, unidentified clear drops on the surface of mycelial mass, and a powdery colony. The production of the drops and their role are not clearly understood. The drops may contain components such as organic acid, e.g. bassiacridin, bassianin, oxalic acid, oosporein, or cyclosporins

A and C (Russell & Paterson, 2006). Fast mycelial growth (as found for strain BbHet2) is an attractive feature for biological control when applied to the surface of soil or pests with short life cycles. It is critical that hyphal penetration should be established before the outer layer (epicuticle) of insect cuticle with conidia is discarded. It is more essential for fast-growing arthropods,

Regorafenib cost such as aphids, thrips, and mites. Fast mycelial colonization in soil can increase the frequency of contact of target insects, CHIR-99021 possibly resulting in swift killing of insects and less damage to crops. BbHet1 may also have the advantage that a higher yield of conidia is produced compared with the original isolates, which is cost-effective in mass production methods. If there is no significant change in virulence, pairing could be used as a tool for manipulate the yield of fungal conidia. Consideration should be given to the relationship between conidial thermotolerance and their RDV (darkness of conidia) which was observed under the microscope. A high density of thermotolerance-related materials could be accumulated in BbHet2 conidia, given the high RDV value. Physiologically, thermotolerance is closely related to the accumulation of heat shock proteins

(HSP) required for heat tolerance and polyols and trehalose in fungi (Hallsworth & Magan, 1996; Tereshina, 2005). In general, the expression of HSPs occurs in response to temperature, oxidative stress, osmotic stress, nutritional starvation, exposure to weak organic acids, ethanol or low pH (Zahringer et al., 1997; Williams & Hallsworth, 2009; Chin et al., 2010). HSPs are synthesized during conidiation for maintenance of conidial viability. HSPs are divided into several families by their molecular mass: 100-, 90-, 70-, and other small Adenosine HSPs, such as HSP 30 and ubiquitin (8 kDa) (Tereshina, 2005). The predominant polyol in B. bassiana is mannitol, which protects cells by scavenging toxic oxygen intermediates from heat, osmotic, and oxidative stress (Hallsworth et al., 2003; Ruijter et al., 2004). However the low-molecular weight polyols, glycerol and erythritol, are more effective in stress adjustment than higher-molecular weight compounds such as mannitol (Hallsworth & Magan, 1996). Trehalose is accumulated in idiophase in the process of fungal cell differentiation, when inhibition of growth processes is observed (Tereshina, 2005). The expression of the trehalose synthase genes is regulated by heat shock, osmotic stress, and nutritional starvation (Reinders et al., 1997).