Structures upstream tyrS represent the stems I, II, III and terminator of the leader region. The terminator/antiterminator

mechanism that regulates the tyrS gene is also indicated: readthrough of the leader region is induced by limitation of tyrosine. Uncharged tyrtRNA stabilize formation of antiterminator structure in the mRNA, which prevents terminator formation (SD: Shine-Dalgarno; ORF: open reading frame of tyrS) Computational three-dimensional modelling of E. durans TyrS protein revealed nucleic acids-binding domains that might suggest a role as transcriptional regulator. However, the same domains have been identified in the highly similar TyrS structure of Thermus thermophilus (Protein Data Bank: 1H3E), and predicted to interact with tRNA (Figure 6). This data is consistent with the electrophoretic mobility shift (EMSA) assays carried to test TyrS binding to AZD1208 chemical structure the promoters of the TDC operon. Under the wide range of conditions studied (different pH, salt concentration, presence or absence of tyrosine…) no specific binding of TyrS was observed (data not shown). These data, together with the finding of tyramine clusters without a tyrS gene in Tetragenococcus halophilus

(GenBank AB059363) and histamine biosynthesis clusters without a hisS gene [36], would suggest a non critical biological function of these genes in the modulation of the contiguous decarboxylation operon. In any case, it can not be discarded that tyrS could exert a post-transcriptional regulation of tyramine biosynthesis. In fact, both enzymes -TyrS learn more and TdcA- share tyrosine as substrate. Figure 6 TyrS structural model achieved using Swiss-Pdb Viewer v. 4.04 software and structure superposition onto the highly similar Thermus terhmophilus tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase. (Protein Data Bank: 1H3E). 1H3E is shown in green, and TyrS model is shown in magenta and yellow. 17-DMAG (Alvespimycin) HCl Analysis of the two aligned structures indicates that all of the DNA/RNA binding

sites are in regions that interact with tRNA in the 1H3E structure (shown in blue). Consequently, two are the possibilities that can be considered: i) there are two tyrS genes in E. durans -as described for E. faecalis- and the one ligated to TDC would be a stress-related gene to ensure sufficient charged TyrtRNA for protein biosynthesis in those conditions that tyrosine is being decarboxylated, or ii) this is the unique tyrS gene and the low expression levels observed under neutral pH conditions are enough to assure protein synthesis for general metabolism and the increased expression at acidic pH would guarantee protein biosynthesis when tyrosine is being decarboxylated. The presence of a second tyrS gene was investigated by Southern hybridizations of E.

For all of the DSs, we offered four-point scales (“No”, “Sporadically”, “Often”, “Regularly”). In addition, we asked the athletes who their primary source of information was about DSs (possible answers included coach, physician, friend, and self), and for those who did not consume and/or only sporadically consumed DSs, the reason why they did not use DSs, if applicable (the answer options were “I don’t think it will be useful; I have a proper diet”; “I don’t have sufficient knowledge

to use DSs”, “The price is too high”, “I don’t think DSs are healthy”). Statistics: Counts (frequencies) and Venetoclax manufacturer proportions were calculated for all of the data. Because of the measurement levels present in the data, a nonparametric Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA test was applied to

establish differences between (a) the athletes competing in the Olympic classes and those competing in the non-Olympic classes, (b) single- and double-crew athletes, and (c) athletes and coaches for each of the ordinal variables. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine differences in parametric variables (age, sport experience) between groups. Spearman’s rank-order correlation was calculated for sport factors, sociodemographic variables, DSs and doping factors (only for ordinal variables). Separate correlation analyses were performed for coaches and athletes. A logistic regression was performed PI3K inhibitor to determine the independent impact of the sociodemographic factors (age, education) and sport factors (crew number, sailing class, competitive achievement, sport experience) on DS usage. A multiple model was built

using all six variables, and the criterion variable (DS usage) was dichotomous (DS nonusers vs. DS users). More precisely, for the purpose of the logistic regression calculation, the athletes who reported “Yes” and “From time to time” for their DS usage were grouped as “DS users”; otherwise, they were categorized as “DS nonusers”. A statistical significance level of 95% (p < 0.05) was applied. Statistical Farnesyltransferase analyses were performed using Statistica Version 10 (Statsoft, Tulsa, OK, USA). Results The athletes and coaches judge their personal knowledge about nutrition and DSs as average in most cases. More than 77% of the athletes consume some type of DS, and 38% do so on a regular basis. Coaches are well aware about DS practice of the athletes. Although the data are not presented separately in the tables, all five of the female athletes use DSs regularly. More than half of the athletes rely on their coaches’ and/or physicians’ opinions about DS and doping issues, but less than one-fourth of the athletes list their coach and/or physician as their primary source of information on DSs and doping, and almost 50% of the athletes and coaches state that the majority of their knowledge about these issues comes from self-education (Table 1).

C. parapsilosis reference strain ATCC 22019 was used as control. Statistics Statistical analysis was performed using Instat software (GraphPad, USA). One-way ANOVA followed by Post-hoc test (Bonferroni) was used to evaluate the level of statistical significance of clustering. The association between biofilm and proteinase production was determined by Pearson’s correlation coefficient selleck chemical (r). Differences between proteinase/biofilm producers versus non producers were examined using Fisher’s exact test. A P value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results Molecular typing of Candida parapsilosis isolates AFLP was used to confirm correct species identification and to evaluate genetic variability

within the selected 62 C. parapsilosis isolates. AFLP profiles obtained for C. parapsilosis consisted of 80 fragments ranging from 100 to 700 bases. Fragments larger than 700 bases were used as a control of DNA integrity. The number of monomorphic fragments was 62, which were common to all C. parapsilosis isolates. Therefore, these fragments were considered species specific

and used for identification. Indeed, as shown in Figure 1A, which includes a wider panel of clinical isolates, this CHIR-99021 price method allowed us to identify the presence of C. metapsilosis and C. tropicalis (CP542, CP534, CP557), which were excluded from this study. Identification of C. tropicalis and C. metapsilosis was performed by comparing AFLP profiles with those of 16 different fungal reference species [[16], data not shown]. Figure 1 AFLP patterns. GNE-0877 (A) AFLP profiles obtained from the molecular screening of 48 putative Candida parapsilosis

clinical isolates and reference strains ATCC 22019 (C. parapsilosis), ATCC 96139 (C. orthopsilosis) and ATCC 96143 (C. metapsilosis). In bold, isolates used in this study for genotyping and phenotyping isolated from Argentina (CP540-558) and Hungary (510-536). M 50-500 base molecular weigh standard. In italics, the non-parapsilosis isolates identified during the AFLP screening. (B) AFLP profiles of 34 C. parapsilosis strains isolated from Italy (CP1-CP502) and New Zealand (CP425-486). At the top of the figure, reference strains for C. metapsilosis (ATCC 96143) C. orthopsilosis (ATCC 96139) and C. parapsilosis (ATCC 22019) are included. Figure 1 displays the AFLP profiles obtained from several C. parapsilosis isolates including those selected for the study and isolated from Argentina, Hungary (Figure 1A), Italy, and New Zealand (Figure 1B). When the presence/absence of fragments was the only parameter considered in AFLP analysis, very little genotypic diversity within the isolate collection was found (Figure 1A-B). In fact, the majority of AFLP markers included in the analysis (n = 80) were monomorphic, with only 18 polymorphic fragments. In agreement, UPGMA analysis indicated that all isolates grouped together, with a similarity index (SAB) higher than 0.96 (Figure 2A).

All three proteins are predicted to contain multiple trans-membrane helices, also predicted for the B. fragilis homologs, and BatD possesses a predicted signal sequence for export, suggesting that these proteins may associate with either the inner or outer membrane of L. biflexa. Figure 1 Amino acid motifs in the Bat proteins of L. biflexa . The vWF and TPR domains

are conserved among Bat homologs and have been proposed to facilitate formation of a large Bat protein complex [4]. The vWF domains identified in Bat proteins contain metal ion-dependent adhesion sites (MIDAS) shown to bind metal ions [10] and the domain overall is thought to mediate protein-protein interactions [11]. The TPR domain of BatB consists of a repeated amino acid motif previously shown to form a tertiary scaffold structure for multiprotein complex IWR1 formation (reviewed in [12]). These domains, along with the presence

of multiple transmembrane helices and a signal sequence Hydroxychloroquine price identified in BatD, suggest that the Bat proteins form a complex associated with either the inner or outer membrane of L. biflexa. Deletion of bat genes The L. biflexa bat genes are located within a contiguous stretch of 11 genes on chromosome II that are transcriptionally oriented in the same direction (Figure 2A). Two different mutations were engineered using allelic replacement with the kanamycin-resistance cassette to delete either batA alone or batABD together; flanking genes were left intact. Three mutant clones from each transformation were shown to have lost the corresponding bat loci by Southern blot analysis of genomic DNA (Figure 2B). PCR analysis also confirmed the presence of the antibiotic-resistance gene (kan) and flanking genes, but bat loci were absent, as expected (data not shown). A single transformant of each type was randomly chosen for further characterization. Figure 2 Gene organization in wild-type and mutant strains of L. biflexa . (A) Genetic organization of bat genes and

flanking genes on chromosome II of L. biflexa (not drawn to scale). The corresponding deleted regions in mutant strains Histamine H2 receptor are depicted with the respective bat genes replaced by the kanamycin-resistance cassette [13]. (B) Southern blot analysis of L. biflexa strains confirms the absence of the respective bat genes in mutant strains. Genomic DNA for the Southern blot was double-digested with restriction endonucleases NdeI and PstI. Three independently isolated transformants from each mutant were compared to wild-type and hybridized with either a labeled batA fragment or with a labeled fragment spanning batB to batD. The weak signal observed at ~3 kb in the batA mutant strains hybridized with the batA probe is likely due to cross-hybridization with batB. +, purified plasmid DNA from E. coli with a cloned region of L. biflexa DNA containing batABD.

Suomalainen LR, Tiirola MA, Valtonen ET: Influence of rearing conditions on Flavobacterium columnare infection of rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum). J Fish Dis 2005,28(5):271–277.PubMedCrossRef 46. Lorenzen E, Olesen NJ: Characterization of isolates of Flavobacterium psychrophilum associated with coldwater disease or rainbow trout fry syndrome II: serological studies. Dis Aquat Organ 1997, 31:209–220.CrossRef 47. Green DM, Gregory A, Munro LA: Small- and large-scale

network structure of live fish movements in Scotland. Prev Vet Med 2009,91(2–4):261–269.PubMedCrossRef 48. Tonolla M, Peduzzi S, Hahn D, Akt inhibitor Peduzzi R: Spatio-temporal distribution of phototrophic sulfur bacteria in the chemocline of meromictic Lake Cadagno (Switzerland). selleck chemical FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2003,43(1):89–98.PubMedCrossRef 49. Griffiths E, Gupta RS: Signature sequences in diverse proteins provide evidence for the late divergence of the Order Aquificales.

Int Microbiol 2004,7(1):41–52.PubMed 50. Yamamoto S, Harayama S: PCR amplification and direct sequencing of gyrB genes with universal primers and their application to the detection and taxonomic analysis of Pseudomonas putida strains. Appl Environ Microbiol 1995,61(10):3768.PubMed 51. Tamura K, Dudley J, Nei M, Kumar S: MEGA4: molecular evolutionary genetics analysis (MEGA) software version 4.0. Mol Biol Evol 2007,24(8):1596–1599.PubMedCrossRef 52. Bikandi J, San Millan R, Rementeria A, Garaizar J: In silico analysis of complete bacterial genomes: PCR, AFLP-PCR and endonuclease restriction. Bioinformatics 2004,20(5):798–799.PubMedCrossRef 53. Altschul SF, Gish W, Miller W, Myers EW, Lipman DJ: Basic local alignment search tool. J Mol Biol 1990,215(3):403–410.PubMedCrossRef 54. Hellemans J, Mortier G, De Paepe A, Speleman F, Vandesompele J: qBase relative quantification framework and software for management and automated analysis of real-time quantitative PCR data. Genome

Biol 2007,8(2):R19.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef 55. Mackay fantofarone IM: Real-time PCR in the microbiology laboratory. Clin Microbiol Infect 2004,10(3):190–212.PubMedCrossRef 56. Yun JJ, Heisler LE, Hwang II, Wilkins O, Lau SK, Hyrcza M, Jayabalasingham B, Jin J, McLaurin J, Tsao MS, Der SD: Genomic DNA functions as a universal external standard in quantitative real-time PCR. Nucleic Acids Res 2006,34(12):e85.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef 57. Joly P, Falconnet PA, Andre J, Weill N, Reyrolle M, Vandenesch F, Maurin M, Etienne J, Jarraud S: Quantitative real-time Legionella PCR for environmental water samples: data interpretation. Appl Environ Microbiol 2006,72(4):2801–2808.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Authors’ contributions NS conceived the study, carried out the Taqman quantitative PCR, analyzed the results and drafted the manuscript. OP participated in the design of the study, analyzed the results and helped in writing the manuscript.

from ASML Holding [43], SiPix Imaging, Inc. in 2003 [44], and Hwang et al. from Korea University [26]. Albeit selleck screening library the more complicated mechanism as compared to roll coating, the usage of spray/valve jet mechanism allows very efficient usage of resist during the NIL process; in the work of Maury and the team [43], a resist amount as little as 5 ml was reported for imprinting 50 copies of a 6-in. wafer

consisting of active-matrix organic light-emitting diode (AMOLED) transistor designs using the valve jet resist dispensing. Figure 11 A thermal R2R NIL process with gravure-based resist coating [42] . Figure 12 Spray coating illustration diagram. Additionally, for thermal R2R NIL, the process may also be conducted without the need for continuous resist coating mechanism, where the patterns are imprinted directly onto a heated polymer substrate as shown MAPK inhibitor in Figure 13 [45], similar to their R2P counterpart by Song et al. [36] and Lim et al. [37]. Using this method, the process is further simplified as the need for control of resist coating uniformity is not required.

It was reported by Mäkelä et al. [45] that grating structures of 10 μm and 400 nm have been successfully imprinted on a cellulose-acetate film at speeds between 0.2 and 15 m/min. Nagato and the team from The University of Tokyo [46], on the other hand, have proposed an iterative roller imprint mechanism capable of producing multilayered nanostructures on a PMMA film as shown in Figure 14. The process introduced is capable of producing multilayered nanogaps and thin-film materials as shown in Figure 15. In imprint lithography, self-alignment is possible for a multilayer product, called self-aligned imprint lithography (SAIL). SAIL works by encoring multiple patterns and alignment

into thickness modulations of a monolithic masking structure. In recent development, R2R NIL is no longer limited in polymer substrates. In the work of Ahn et al. from Yonsei University [47], a continuous R2R NIL system was also proposed for rigid substrates such as glass. FER A gap control system was also introduced to cater for variable substrate thickness as shown in Figure 16. Figure 13 Photo of the thermal R2R NIL system for direct polymer film imprinting from [45] . Figure 14 Schematic of the R2R NIL system for multilayered structures from [46] . Figure 15 Process flow to produce (a) multilayered nanogaps and (b) multilayered thin-film materials. Using the R2R NIL system shown in Figure 16 as observed in [46]. Figure 16 Schematic of R2R NIL for a rigid substrate by Ahn et al. from Yonsei University [47] . Despite the advantages, it is noted that there are several challenges in realizing the continuous R2R NIL process. One of the main challenges is the fabrication of the special flexible mold, which will be discussed in further sections.

Real-time PCR results were not statistically different from the microarray results for each of the genes evaluated (p > 0.05). Figure 4 S. epidermidis transcriptome in mixed species biofilms and validation. Figure 4 A represents a heat map with hierarchal clustering of the samples. Red color indicates upregulation and light blue down regulation. S1, S2, S3 and SC1, SC2 and SC3 represent 3 biological replicates of single species S. epidermidis and mixed species biofilms respectively. Two down

regulated genes (lrgA and lrgB) and 3 upregulated genes (prfA, hrcA and guaC) were evaluated for microarray validation (Figure 4 B). Results for microarray are shown in white bars and real-time RT PCR in gray bars. Real-time RT PCR shows consistent results with microarray (p > 0.05 for each gene tested). Evidence for increased eDNA in mixed-species biofilms Quantification Akt inhibitor of the bacterial eDNA in the extracted biofilm matrix using S. epidermidis specific primers (lrgA, lrgB and bap) showed significantly increased bacterial eDNA in mixed-species biofilms of S. epidermidis and C. albicans compared to single

species biofilms Linsitinib solubility dmso of S. epidermidis (Figure  5A). Extracted biofilm eDNA was normalized for CFU/ml of the initial organism suspension used to form the biofilms. In order to understand the contribution of eDNA from Candida, we assayed the eDNA with Candida chromosomal gene specific primers RIP, RPP2B and PMA1 (Figure  5B). Candida specific eDNA was identified in single species Candida biofilms

(< 30 ng/108 CFU/ml), none in S. epidermidis single species biofilms and negligible in mixed species biofilms. This confirms the predominance of bacterial (Staphylococcal eDNA) in the extracellular matrix of mixed-species biofilms. Figure 5 Increased eDNA in the mixed-species biofilms confirmed by real-time RT PCR. Biofilm matrix was extracted and eDNA was quantitated by real-time RT PCR using genomic DNA as standard. Primers for S. epidermidis genes (lrg A, lrgB and bap) were used to quantify the eDNA (Figure 5 A). Staphylococcal eDNA was increased significantly in the mixed species biofilms compared to single species S. epidermidis biofilms (*, ** and ¶, p < 0.05). Farnesyltransferase Candida gene specific primers (RIP, RPP2B and PMA1) were used to assess the contribution of eDNA by Candida in mixed species biofilms (Figure 5 B). Candida specific eDNA was present in Candida biofilms, absent in S. epidermidis biofilms and negligible in mixed species biofilms. S. epidermidis biofilms are represented in white bars, mixed species biofilms in gray bars and Candida biofilms in chequered bars. Disrupting eDNA by DNAse decreases single and mixed-species biofilms We further confirmed the presence of eDNA by estimating the effects of DNA degradation on single and mixed species biofilms. DNAse I treatment for 16 hrs disrupted both single and mixed species biofilms of S.

We therefore hypothesized that an additional target for PCN in liver myofibroblasts is the LAGS. The identity of the LAGS has yet to be determined although it shows similar – but not identical binding characteristics – to a steroid binding activity to which the progesterone receptor membrane component 1 (PGRMC1) may be associated [10–14]. find more There are 2 PGRMC genes in humans and rodents that code for ~28 kDa proteins. The

proteins have a single N-terminal membrane spanning domain and do not show significant homology with other gene super-families such as nuclear receptors [12]. PGRMC1 has been shown to bind haem [13] but it remains contentious as to whether the protein directly binds steroids, as suggested by Peluso et al [14], or is a component of a complex that binds steroids. Our data with the human Fluorouracil nmr PGRMC1 suggest that phosphorylation of the protein or a component of the binding complex may be important for efficient steroid binding and may explain the difficulties of reconstituting steroid binding, when the protein is purified or over-expressed in mammalian cells

[12]. Nonetheless, these data are limited and the identity of the binding protein remains to be unambiguously demonstrated. Recent evidence suggests, however, that PGRMC1 binds to cytochrome P450s and functions to facilitate cytochrome P450-mediated metabolism of sterol biosynthesis [15]. Interestingly, PGRMC1 stably binds to cytochrome P450 51A1 [15], an isoform that has been shown to be expressed in activated human liver myofibroblasts [16]. We therefore hypothesized that PCN mediates its PXR-independent mechanism of inhibiting

myofibroblast trans-differentiation/proliferation via a LAGS/PGRMC interaction. To test this hypothesis, rat PGRMC1 was cloned and expressed and binding of PCN to the protein or a complex containing this protein confirmed. Through a series of established in vitro screens, a putative ligand for rat and human PGRMC1-associated complex – that was not also a PXR activator – was identified and shown to potently inhibit rat and human liver Acesulfame Potassium myofibroblast trans-differentiation and proliferation, in vitro. However, this compound failed to show any anti-fibrogenic activity in an in vivo model of liver fibrosis because the target PGRMC1 was not expressed by myofibroblasts, in vivo. Results The PGRMC1 is expressed in rat and human HSCs and myofibroblasts Quiescent HSCs were isolated from normal rat liver or from histologically normal margins of human liver tissue resected because of the presence of a secondary tumour. When placed in the appropriate culture conditions, these cells trans-differentiate into myofibroblasts, reminiscent of the process that occurs in the liver in response to chronic liver damage [1].

Previous work indicated that hha ydgT mutants failed to swim on motility plates but the contribution of the individual genes to this phenotype was not known and the ability of these strains to make surface flagella was not tested [16]. To test the contribution of individual genes to this non-motile phenotype, we used a standard soft agar motility assay and confirmed that hha ydgT mutants were non-motile in accordance with previous data (Figure 2A). This phenotype required deletion of both

hha and ydgT as single Δhha or ΔydgT mutants remained motile (Figure 2B). To determine if the motility defect observed in Δhha ΔydgT was due to a defect in flagellar rotation or a lack of flagellar production we stained bacteria and examined them using transmission Doxorubicin cell line electron microscopy to visualize surface flagella. We found that while wild type bacteria were highly flagellated, Δhha ΔydgT bacteria did not assemble flagella on their surface (Figure 2C). Figure 2 Repression of flagellar biosynthesis and motility is dependent on the loss of Hha and YdgT. (A) Wild type, Δhha, ΔydgT and Δhha ΔydgT were assessed for flagellar-based motility using a 0.25% soft agar motility assay STA-9090 order in which

2 μL of overnight culture was inoculated into semi-solid agar and incubated at 37°C for 6 h. (B) The radius of the motility halo region was quantified after 6 h and is shown as means with standard errors. (C) Bacteria and surface flagella were negatively stained using a 0.1% uranyl acetate solution and visualized using scanning transmission electron microscopy. Data represents three independent experiments. Transcriptional activity of class

II/III and III promoters is decreased in a hha ydgT mutant Flagellar biosynthesis is organized into a transcriptional hierarchy of three distinct classes. To understand the non-flagellated phenotype in greater detail, we measured the activity of transcriptional reporters corresponding to each of the three promoter classes driving the expression of green fluorescent protein (GFP). While the transcriptional activity in single hha or ydgT mutants was not Thalidomide significantly different when compared to wild type, transcriptional reporters for the hybrid class II/III promoter (fliA) [23, 24] and class III promoter (fliC) were significantly reduced in the hha ydgT double mutant compared to wild type cells (Figure 3A). Since flhDC promoter activity did not differ between wild type and the hha ydgT mutant, we tested whether the inhibition of class II/III and class III gene expression in Δhha ΔydgT involved an effect downstream of FlhD-FlhC protein production, since the FlhD4C2 complex is known to activate class II transcription. Using Western blot analysis with FlhC and FlhD-specific antisera, we observed a decrease in the levels of FlhC and FlhD in hha ydgT mutants compared to wild type (Figure 3B), which was consistent with the observed decrease in activity for FlhD4C2 target promoters.

Kuroda M, Ohta T, Uchiyama I, Baba T, Yuzawa H, Kobayashi I, Cui L, Oguchi A, Aoki K, Nagai Y, et al.: Whole genome sequencing of meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus . Lancet 2001, 357 (9264) : 1225–1240.PubMedCrossRef 57. Novick R: Properties of a cryptic high-frequency transducing phage in Staphylococcus aureus . Virology 1967, 33 (1) : 155–166.PubMedCrossRef 58. Horsburgh MJ, Aish JL, White IJ, Shaw L, Lithgow JK, Foster SJ: σ B modulates virulence determinant expression and stress resistance: characterization of a functional rsbU strain derived from Staphylococcus aureus 8325–4. JBacteriol 2002, 184 (19) : 5457–5467.CrossRef Authors’ contributions MT carried out the phospholipid

analyses and molecular genetic studies, and participated in manuscript preparation. RLO performed the high-salinity survival analyses, Palbociclib and YK performed the antimicrobial peptide susceptibility tests. SLT participated Volasertib clinical trial in the molecular genetic studies. YK, RLO, TO, and SS participated in designing the study. HH conceived of the study with KM and helped to coordinate the study. KM carried out molecular genetic studies, participated in the design and coordination of the study, and helped

to draft the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.”
“Background Burkholderia pseudomallei is a facultative intracellular pathogen responsible for melioidosis, an infectious disease of humans prevalent in Southeast Asia and Northern Australia [1]. Infections in humans may result in a wide range of clinical symptoms and manifestations [2, 3] and in some individuals the bacterium is able to persist with symptoms not shown until several years after exposure [4]. B. pseudomallei has been shown to have a broad host range with disease reported

in animals Rutecarpine ranging from kangaroos to dolphins [5, 6]. However, in the laboratory, the mouse is the most commonly used infection model [7]. Different strains of B. pseudomallei vary markedly in their virulence in murine models of disease. When given by the intraperitoneal (i.p) route, the most virulent isolates have an infectious dose of less than 50 colony forming units (cfu), whereas in the least virulent isolates the infectious dose is over 5,000 cfu [7]. It is not clear whether these differences in virulence in mice are associated with the various clinical outcomes observed in humans. Whilst murine models of infection are valuable for understanding mechanisms of virulence, the behaviour of B. pseudomallei in cell culture systems has been used to characterise the intracellular lifestyle of the bacterium. B. pseudomallei has been shown to be taken up by professional phagocytes including mouse macrophage-like cell lines such as J774 and RAW264 [8, 9] and non-phagocytic cells including HeLa and A549 cells [8]. More recently, other members of the Burkholderia genus including B. thailandensis and B. oklahomensis have been described as being closely related to B. pseudomallei [10, 11]. Indeed, until recently, B.