Esteban-Fernández et al. [54] führten In-vivo-Experimente an Ratten aus, denen Pt-Medikamente injiziert wurden. Die Autoren untersuchten die Bindung von Platin an Proteine in der Niere und im Innenohr, um die nephrotoxischen und ototoxischen Effekte von Pt-Medikamenten zu charakterisieren. Nach Behandlung von Ratten mit Cisplatin, Carboplatin und Oxaliplatin wurde die Pt-Akkumulation in den beiden Organen analysiert. Die Ergebnisse zeigten deutlich, dass nicht nur der (Gesamt-) Pt-Gehalt, sondern vielmehr die Struktur des Medikaments (die tatsächliche INCB018424 Pt-Spezies) für die Änderung

der Organfunktion verantwortlich ist. Speziationsstudien an Proben der Niere und des Innenohrs mittels 2D-Flüssigchromatographie (Größenausschlusschromatographie + FPLC) in Kombination mit ICP-MS demonstrierten eine vollständige Bindung des Platin an Proteine. Ein Metallothionein-Standard eluierte bei derselben Retentionszeit wie einige der cytosolischen Pt-Biomoleküle.

Peaks des freien Pt-Medikaments wurden nicht beobachtet. Urin wird als Matrix für das Pt-Biomonitoring verwendet, selleck chemicals llc um den Zeitverlauf der Pt-Exkretion nach der Verabreichung zu verfolgen und die biologische Halbwertszeit zu bestimmen. Außerdem lassen sich die Pt-Metaboliten (Spezies), die letztlich vom Organismus ausgeschieden werden, charakterisieren. Auf diese Weise könnte sich eine Beurteilung des in-vivo-Metabolismus Pt-haltiger Medikamente durchführen lassen. Speziation des Urins von Krebspatienten zeigt, dass etwa 40 % der Ausgangssubstanz (Cisplatin) in hydrolysierter Form als Monoaqua-Cisplatin exkretiert werden [21]. Der restliche Teil wird als (natives)

Cisplatin exkretiert, das dann entsprechend der für hohe Chloridkonzentrationen ermittelten Kinetik hydrolysiert wird. In einer weiteren Arbeit, durchgeführt von Tang et al. [55], wurde die Speziation von Platinverbindungen in Urin von Patienten, die mit Cisplatin behandelt worden waren, mittels HPLC– ICP-MS untersucht. Bei der Analyse trat als Hauptkomponente Cisplatin auf, jedoch wurden auch ein Monoaqua-Cisplatinkomplex und ein Pt-Creatininkomplex im Verhältnis 1:1 identifiziert. Letzterer, so wurde festgestellt, war die zweithäufigste Tangeritin Pt-Spezies im Urin. Weitere Peaks entsprachen Cisplatin-Harnstoff und Cisplatin-Harnsäure, die beide durch Vergleich ihrer Retentionszeiten mit der von Standardsubstanzen identifiziert wurden. Bei einem parallel durchgeführten Experiment wurde Urin von Carboplatin-behandelten Patienten untersucht. In diesem Fall war die hauptsächliche Pt-Spezies im Urin die Ausgangssubstanz Carboplatin [55]. Keine der seltener auftretenden Spezies stimmte mit einer derjenigen überein, die sich in Proben nachweisen ließen, welche nach einer Cisplatin Behandlung genommen worden waren.

, 2010). Among the glycation agents we call attention to methylglyoxal, which is a dicarbonyl reactive that originates from the breakdown of glucose (Desai and Wu, 2007). The results of this study showed that co-treatment of human neutrophils with MGO/high glucose promoted important modifications in the neutrophil function in vitro. Treatment of neutrophils with MGO/high glucose

did not promote citotoxicity; however, it reduced the Romidepsin order phagocytic capacity and the G6PDH, total/SOD and GR activities. Additionally, there was an increase in the activity of myeloperoxidase (MPO) with consequent increase in the hypochlorous acid production, CAT activity and in the release of IL-6 cytokine without changes in intracellular calcium mobilization. Contrasting with other studies ( Dhar et al., 2008),

MGO/high glucose did not show a strong pro-oxidant effect, as demonstrated by the ratings in the production Sorafenib of superoxide anion, hydrogen peroxide and nitric oxide. These results indicate which MGO/high glucose effects did not involve oxidative stress or calcium release. In addition, our study shows that the association of astaxanthin with vitamin C greatly improved neutrophil phagocytic capacity, decreasing all reactive oxygen species measured, pro-inflammatory IL-1β and TNF-α release, MPO activity and HClO production. The combination of astaxanthin with vitamin C alone has more antioxidant and anti-inflammatory than when they were in the presence of MGO/high glucose. The abnormal glucose homeostasis in diabetes due to the formation of the highly reactive metabolite MGO (Fleming et al., 2011, Tajima et al., 2002 and Thornalley, 2005) may be the key step in triggering the neutrophil dysfunction.

Neutrophils are the first immune cells to enter the site of infection or injury and there neutrophils kill microorganisms by ingesting them into phagocytic vacuoles (phagosomes). Therefore, phagocytosis is undoubtedly one of the most important roles of neutrophils. During phagocytosis, granules in the cytoplasm of neutrophils merge with the newly formed phagosome, forming the Thymidylate synthase phagolysosome (Kuijpers et al., 2001). The cytoplasmic granules of neutrophils have as one of their main constituent myeloperoxidase, the enzyme that catalyzes the reaction of hydrogen peroxide in the presence of halide ions such as chloride, bromide and iodide hipohalosos acids, in particular hypochlorous acid (Hampton et al., 1998 and Kettle et al., 1997). Hypochlorous acid is considered one of the most important anti-microbial agents produced by neutrophils. During phagocytosis there is activation of the NADPH oxidase, an enzyme complex that assembles in the phagosomal membrane and converts oxygen into the superoxide radical anion (O2 −). Superoxide anion is generated in the external surface (i.e.

Here, we investigate the possibility that one component of apathy might be relative

insensitivity to rewards mediated by dysfunction in frontostriatal systems. It has long been known that damage to medial frontal cortex can lead to an apathetic state, with patients demonstrating what has been termed ‘abulia’: reduced initiation of behaviour, lack of interest in their surroundings and loss of spontaneous emotional expression (Starkstein and Leentjens, 2008). A similar condition can also occur after focal lesions of the basal ganglia (Bhatia and Marsden, 1994), with the most severe presentations associated with bilateral damage (Laplane and Dubois, check details 2001; Schmidt et al., LY2109761 clinical trial 2008). Such cases are relatively rare, however, and although many aspects of their behaviour have been reported, there has been very little experimental study (but see Schmidt et al., 2008). Here we report one such individual with profound apathy following focal, bilateral lesions largely involving the globus pallidus (GPi) of the basal ganglia who provides a rare opportunity to understand both the neurobiology and pharmacological modulation of the condition. We used two oculomotor tasks designed to probe reward-based decision-making.

In non-human primates, such behaviour has frequently been studied using eye movements, with internal globus pallidus (GPi) neurons demonstrating reward-related activity on such oculomotor tasks (Hong and Hikosaka, 2008; Shin and Sommer, 2010). Although many brain regions,

Smoothened including parietal and temporal cortex, are activated by reward, a wide range of studies has now demonstrated that the basal ganglia, orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC) make a particularly important contribution to value-based decision-making (Haber and Knutson, 2010), with dopamine playing a critical role in modulating behavioural sensitivity to reward (Schultz, 2007). Emerging studies suggest that dopamine also makes a crucial contribution to effort-based decision-making, overcoming the cost of making efforts to obtain desired goals (Niv et al., 2007; Kurniawan et al., 2011). Lesions of the medial frontal cortex affect how much effort rats are willing to invest for rewards (Walton et al., 2002, 2003; Rudebeck et al., 2006; Schweimer and Hauber, 2005). Rats are also rendered ‘anergic’ – employing less effortful feeding behaviour – by disruption of dopaminergic transmission in the nucleus accumbens (Font et al., 2008) or the GABA-ergic system in ventral pallidum (Farrar et al., 2008). Moreover, recent functional imaging in healthy humans implicates medial frontal and striatal regions in effort-based decision-making (Croxson et al., 2009).

Predictions were made for the whole Proteasome inhibitor research area in a 100 × 100 m grid and together

with coordinates were transcribed to a DBF file, which can be easily used with most GIS software. The output file of a model was imported in ArcGIS 9.3.1 software. Using ‘Natural Neighbour’ interpolation, raster files of biomass distribution were produced. Rasters of those prey items that a particular fish species feeds on were added up with different weights (Table 2). Weights are given according to the occurrence and importance shown in Table 1. Initial biomass values were multiplied by the weight in order to better reflect the important feeding items in the feeding ground map. As different multipliers were used, biomass units were no longer suitable, so scores of weighted biomass was categorized into five levels of quality: very high, this website high, moderate, low and very low, where very high quality indicates the highest biomass aggregations of prey items with respect to their importance to fish diets. Finally, the maps for different fish species were combined and the map of overall seabed quality for the feeding of a given fish was produced. Three levels of accuracy were generated for the quality map of fish feeding grounds. The accuracy indicated how well or badly different quartiles of a predictor range were covered by macrofauna samples. First of all, the accuracy of biomass distribution of each prey item was estimated.

In relation to partial plots, every predictor was split into four intervals/categories (predictors with presence/absence data were split into two) and the number of macrofauna samples was counted for each interval/category. Since 171 samples were used for the model build up, 171 was the total point pool split between intervals/categories of a single predictor. Then the ‘Reclassify’ function was used to reclassify the predictor layer assigning Farnesyltransferase these points for all intervals/categories. These point scores were multiplied by the mean decrease accuracy value (Table 5) produced by the model. In this way the accuracy of the most important predictor receives the highest weight and minor predictors had a proportionally lower impact on overall accuracy.

Finally, the accuracy layers of every prey item were added up, then split into three categories (high, moderate, low) using the geometrical interval classification method; ultimately, an accuracy layer for the feeding grounds was produced. A ‘high’ accuracy is interpreted as the best possible area modelled with the current dataset, though validation errors must still be taken into account. Areas of ‘moderate’ accuracy should be treated as trustworthy, although they should be studied more closely before decision making. A ‘low ’ accuracy indicates areas that are modelled on the basis of just a few samples and should be treated with caution. Eight macrozoobenthos species or higher taxa were identified during the analysis of fish stomach contents (Table 1).

Most of the radionuclide activities in seawater were below the limits of detection: 51Cr – 0.82, 54Mn – 0.08, 57Co – 0.09, 60Co – 0.11, 65Zn – 0.15, 85Sr – 0.9, 109Cd – 2.04, 110mAg – 0.13, 113Sn – 0.13, 137Cs – 0.07, 241Am – 0.28 [Bq dm−3]. The macroalgae Ixazomib in vitro samples taken from the aquaria were dried, weighed to determine dry mass content, ashed at 450°C and homogenized. They were then placed in 40 mm  diameter cylindrical dishes, in which form they were ready for radioactivity measurements. Gamma emitting radionuclide activity was measured with the gamma spectrometric method, using an HPGe detector, with a relative efficiency of 18% and a resolution of 1.8 keV for a 60Co peak of

1332 keV. The detector was coupled to an 8192-channel computer analyser. The limits of detection (expressed in Bq kg−1 d.w.) of the radionuclides in the algae were as follows: 51Cr – 64.6, 54Mn – 7.3, 57Co – 4.8, 60Co – 7.9, 65Zn – 15.2, 85Sr – 7.9, 109Cd – 93.0, 110mAg – 6.1, 113Sn – 7.6, 137Cs – 6.8, 241Am

– 22.8. The reliability and accuracy of the method applied was validated by participation in the HELCOM-MORS proficiency test determination of radionuclides in fish flesh samples organized by IAEA-MEL NVP-BKM120 solubility dmso Monaco (IAEA-414, Irish and North Sea Fish). Fish flesh can be regarded as a substitute for ashed macroalgae samples with almost the same density as the prepared samples. Results of the 137Cs and 40K determinations are presented in Table 2 (after IAEA 2010). In order to determine the accuracy acceptableand precision of the radionuclide determination, a water sample containing 1 ml of the mixed gamma standard solution (code BW/Z-62/27/07, applied in the experiment) was prepared and the isotope activities measured using the same geometry and gamma spectrometry method ( Table 1). The initial,

radioactive concentrations (i.e. the concentrations prior to exposure) of the analysed radionuclides in plants were below the limit of detection of the method, except for 137Cs. The levels of 137Cs were 31.7 ± 1.2 Bq kg−1 d.w. in P. fucoides and 16.9 ± 0.8 Bq kg−1 d.w. in F. lumbricalis. The radionuclide activity levels found in P. fucoides and F. lumbricalis after 20 days of exposure under laboratory conditions are presented in Figure 2. The concentration of zinc was the highest in both species: the activity of 65Zn Bumetanide in P. fucoides was 25 847 Bq kg−1 d.w., a value that was over three times higher than that determined in F. lumbricalis. The concentration of 110mAg was also very high in P. fucoides (16 487 Bq kg−1 d.w.) in comparison with the other radionuclides ( Table 3). The activity of 110mAg was much lower in F. lumbricalis – 2462 Bq kg−1 d.w. Apart from these high concentrations of 65Zn and 110mAg, the activity levels of most of the other radionuclides were close to or less than 5000 Bq kg−1 d.w. Values close to 5000 Bq kg−1 d.w. were recorded for 54Mn in F. lumbricalis, 60Co in both species and 113Sn in P. fucoides.

After

EUS TCB diagnosis of type 2 AIP, prednisone therapy was administered in 4 patients (patients 1, 2, 6, and 7), resulting in complete clinical resolution without recurrence over a mean follow-up of 22 months (range, 1.5-54 months). Three patients (patients 4, 8, and 9) with AIP were not given steroids due to insufficient disease severity. Of these, 1 patient (patient 4) remains under close supervision at our facility, whereas the other 2 are being followed by their referring institution. The use of TCB in the pediatric patient population has been limited http://www.selleckchem.com/products/PD-0325901.html by a difficult-to-use TCB needle, smaller pancreas size in children, relative paucity of indications, uncertain role of TCB, and heightened concern regarding its safety in pediatric patients. Our data, however, suggest the potential utility and safety of EUS TCB in a pediatric population. The diagnostic yield of EUS TCB in our patient population was 86%, which is comparable with that reported in adults.2, 9, 10 and 11 Only 1 check details patient with AIP had nondiagnostic pathology, but the EUS imaging features suggested the diagnosis of AIP, which had not been previously suspected. The EUS TCB diagnosis of AIP significantly altered the management of our patients, leading directly to steroid therapy in most. For the 3 patients with AIP and mild symptoms,

the ability to obtain a definitive diagnosis now allows careful monitoring and disease-specific therapy if subsequently clinically required. In these patients, we opted to obtain TCB specimens to optimize the chance for diagnosis given the lower diagnostic sensitivity of EUS TCB when obtained after steroid therapy or during later disease stages. Early diagnosis of pancreatic pathology, especially AIP,

allows for timely and disease-specific therapy Wilson disease protein and may help prevent disease progression to advanced usual chronic pancreatitis. Histologic confirmation also avoids the risks associated with indiscriminate steroid therapy for incorrectly presumed AIP. The diagnosis of AIP, although always challenging, is particularly difficult among pediatric patients given their tendency for type 2 disease. Type 2 AIP was the most common diagnosis in this patient population, as opposed to type 1 AIP, which accounts for 80% of AIP in the general U.S. population.12 Type 2 AIP is typically found in younger patients than type 1 AIP, but AIP in general is thought to be uncommon in the pediatric population.13 Diagnosis of type 2 AIP requires histologic confirmation, which was achieved in 86% of our pediatric patients using EUS TCB.14 Our experience also suggests the potential under-recognition of this disease, especially in the pediatric population, may be in part due to the reluctance to obtain histologic verification. However, our study suggests that EUS TCB may be a safe and feasible diagnostic tool for AIP in children in the appropriate clinical setting.

This latter finding is important as it suggests that the N2pc is created in cortex that is responsible for representing the target, and thus does not reflect modulation of the distractor representation itself.1 A more recent study has demonstrated that N2pc amplitude does not vary as a function of the need for distractor suppression, and that the component

can be elicited under circumstances where distractor suppression would presumably be counter-productive (Mazza et al., 2009). Results like these have led to the recent proposal that the N2pc may index ambiguity resolution through the action of multiple mechanisms, some acting on brain areas responsible for representing the distractor and others acting on brain areas responsible for Crizotinib molecular weight representing the target itself (Hickey et al., 2009). This last perspective is the one adopted in the current study: we believe that the N2pc indexes more than one attentional mechanism, as suggested by Hickey et al. (2009), but that the core purpose of these operations is the resolution and disambiguation of visual input, as suggested by Luck et al., 1997a and Luck et al., 1997b. In the context

of feature priming, this motivates the possibility that the type of perceptual ambiguity resolved by the N2pc may be similar in nature to the type of perceptual Tryptophan synthase ambiguity that Meeter and Olivers,

2006 and Olivers and Meeter, 2006) suggest causes feature priming. A prediction can be generated from this idea, namely that manipulations of perceptual Baf-A1 ambiguity that increase intertrial priming–such as the inclusion of a salient distractor in a display–should create a larger target-elicited N2pc. In order to test this hypothesis we recorded ERPs while participants completed a task based on the additional singleton paradigm of Theeuwes (1991). Participants searched for a shape singleton and responded based on the orientation of a line contained within this object. There were two important manipulations in the experimental design. First, display ambiguity was varied by replacing one of the non-targets in the search display with a task-irrelevant singleton defined by unique color. This is known to slow reaction time (RT) and increase error in this task, reflecting increased competition for selection ( Theeuwes, 1991). Second, in order to measure intertrial priming, the colors that defined the target and distractor in any one trial could remain the same in the next trial or could swap. Given this design we generated three predictions. First, the amplitude of target-elicited N2pc should be larger when displays contain a salient distractor and attention is deployed to the target.

Standard molecular procedures were performed as described by Ausubel et al.

(1995). The bifunctional yeast – E. coli vector YCpLac33 ( Gietz and Sugino, 1988) was used as template for amplification of ycf1::URA3 disruption cassette. The pmr1Δycf1Δ double mutant was obtained by disruption of the YCF1 gene by homologous recombination with the ycf1::URA3 cassette. The latter was amplified with Platinum® high fidelity Taq DNA polymerase (Invitrogen) and the primers described in Table 2. Then, the disruption cassette was purified with the PureLink™ gel extraction kit (Invitrogen) and employed for transformation of the pmr1Δ strain. The disruption was confirmed by PCR and restriction analyses performed with phenol–chloroform purified genomic DNA from potential yeast transformant colonies selected in SC medium lacking check details uracil. Yeast strains were growth in SC medium at 30 °C until the stationary phase, then harvested by centrifugation (1 min/15,000 × g) and washed twice with distilled water. For survival assays, 1.2 × 107 cells/mL were treated in SC medium supplemented or not with CdCl2 (50 μM, 100 μM, 200 μM or 400 μM) and incubated for 4 h in an orbital shaker (120 rpm) at 30 °C. After the treatments, cells were washed and diluted to 1.2 × 103 cells/mL. Aliquots of MLN0128 price 100 μL were plated in SC solid medium

and incubated at 30 °C for 2–3 d to determine cell viability. The yeast strains were treated with 50 μM CdCl2 as

described in section 2.3. At 1 h intervals, second 10 mL aliquots were collected. Then, 1 mL of these samples was used for survival determination and the remaining 9 mL was centrifuged and subjected to atomic absorption using a 3100 Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (PerkinElmer) for quantification of residual Cd2+ concentration in the supernatant. Cd2+ content was estimated by determining the difference in metal concentration between control medium without biomass and test medium containing biomass (Gomes et al., 2002). The results were normalized with respect to the number of surviving cells at each time point, and are expressed as micrograms of Cd2+ absorbed by 107 surviving cells. The strains were treated as described in Section 2.3. After 4 h, cells were harvested for total RNA extraction using RNeasy Mini Kit (Qiagen) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. About 200–300 ng of total RNA previously treated with DNAse I amplification grade (Promega) were subjected to first strand cDNA synthesis using the poly-T antisense primer, and the M-MLV reverse transcriptase (Promega). PCR was carried out with Platinum Taq DNA polymerase (Invitrogen) and the specific primers described in Table 2. The reactions were performed with 20 ng of first strand cDNA, except for PMC1, for which 10 ng was used. The ACT1 gene was employed as a constitutive control.

The authors are in debt to Professor Licinio Esmeralda da Silva (Department of Mathematics of the Universidade Federal Fluminense, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil) for the statistical revision of the data, Ms. Heloisa Maria Nogueira Diniz for preparing the figures and Mr. Norberto Fritz Schneider for preparing the open-field

apparatus. “
“For high-resolution applications, the majority of cardiovascular magnetic resonance studies are performed with respiratory gating during free-breathing using diaphragmatic navigators [1] and [2]. The accept/reject algorithm [3] and [4], used to limit respiratory motion to a small (typically 5 mm) gating BI 6727 in vitro window around end expiration, is inherently inefficient and unpredictable particularly in the presence of respiratory drift [5]. A number of DAPT nmr techniques including motion adaptive gating [6] and phase encode ordering methods [7], [8] and [9] reduce the effects of respiratory motion within the navigator acceptance window, enabling improved image quality or greater respiratory efficiency. Alternatively, navigator information may be used to both gate and provide input to respiratory motion models which relate the motion of the diaphragm to that of the heart. The most basic of these models uses a fixed superior–inferior

factor to perform slice tracking [1] and [10], but tracking factors vary considerably between subjects [11] and [12], and calculating accurate subject-specific values is both difficult and time consuming. More complex models, Cyclin-dependent kinase 3 often derived from multiple navigators,

include three-dimensional (3D) translational [13] and affine transformations [14], [15] and [16] which take into account the nonrigid deformation of the heart and its hysteretic relationship with the diaphragm. Such methods have enabled increases in the acceptance window from 5 to 10 mm without loss of image quality, resulting in improved respiratory efficiency (from ∼40% [4] to ∼70% [17]). These models, however, are derived from a prescan and do not adapt to changes that may occur over subsequent long acquisitions. Several novel non-model-based alternatives have been developed which derive respiratory motion information directly from the anatomy of interest. Self-gated techniques use respiratory information obtained from a repeated superior–inferior projection within the acquisition to gate [18] or perform one-dimensional translational corrections [19], while other methods reconstruct heavily aliased subimages from a subset of the full high-resolution acquisition on every cardiac cycle for respiratory gating [20] or to obtain 3D affine corrections [21]. Alternatively, simultaneously acquired additional low-resolution images have been used to obtain two-dimensional (2D) in-plane translational corrections [22] and rotations [23].

The optic nerve sheath was measured 3 mm distal to the optic disc [5]. The normal eye had a typical circular hypoechoic B-mode image with well seen structures inside: a thin hypoechoic cornea (parallel to the eyelid), anechoic

anterior and posterior chambers (filled with liquid), anechoic lens, hyperechoic iris and ciliary body (linear structures extending from the peripheral globe towards lens) and relatively echolucent vitreous. The normal retina was not able to be differentiated from the choroidal layers. The optic nerve caused a hypoechoic shadow away from the globe. The same structures had also a typical Alectinib molecular weight 4D ultrasound image – the optic disc had a sharp contour without swelling into the vitreous and the optic nerves were with relatively symmetrical sheath diameters on both BGB324 purchase sides (Fig. 1). In the presence of optic nerve head pathology we found relatively specific 4D images. Papilledema was presented as a contoured hyperechoic prominence into the vitreous. Its degree correlated with the severity of edema, measured by ophthalmoscopy. On the same side the optic sheath diameter was increased in association

with the degree of optic disc swelling (Fig. 2). The space–time imaging contributed for the quick distinguish of neuro-ophthalmic syndromes from other ophthalmic lesions. Retinal detachment was seen as a hyperechoic undulating membrane in the posterior to lateral globe. Blood vessels had grown up from the choroid behind the retina in the case of wet macular (neovascular) degeneration producing hyperechoic membrane into

the vitreous. The choroidal metastasis was imaged as a heterogenic irregular unifocal formation PRKD3 within the lateral part of the affected vitreous with a feeding vessel connecting the formation with the choroidea (Fig. 3). Our study shows that space–time ultrasound imaging gives additional information for the type, location and severity of the eye structures and allows their real time volume assessment in normal and disease conditions. All available 4D ultrasound data in the literature are for studying fetal behavior and prenatal eye movements during pregnancy [6], therefore we could not compare our findings with other volume ultrasound ophthalmic studies in adults. The 4D neuro-ophthalmo-sonology helps for the quick volume imaging of the type, size, location and severity of optic disc and optic nerve edema and its differentiation from other ophthalmic lesions. It may be helpful in avoiding the need from lumbar puncture, CT or MRI. “
“Laser Doppler flowmetry (LDF) is a contemporary noninvasive method for microvascular investigation used in different medical fields including neurology. The Doppler shift of the laser beam is the carrier of the information about microcirculatory blood flow.