However, in some cases the observable changes in these behaviors may be subtle and

it is of interest to also be able to quantify orofacial hyperalgesia in response to a stimulus. Pain-related spontaneous behavior As most of the currently available pain-testing devices prove impossible to use in the facial region, only a relatively small number of studies has been Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical performed to date and most focus on spontaneous responses (see Tables 1 and ​and2).2). The most used to date and the most simple, is the formalin test, which involves the injection of the irritant chemical into the upper lip of the rodent and observing the licking and scratching behavior. This model has been first described by Clavelou et al. (1989) and further used by Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical a number of

groups in both rats (Luccarini et al. 2004; Raboisson and Dallel 2004) and mice (Luccarini et al. 2006; Bornhof et al. 2011). In TMJ injections of formalin, a head-flinching behavior and chewing-like motions of the mandible were also observed (Roveroni et al. 2001). Formalin is particularly useful for evaluating primary and secondary hyperalgesia alterations in transgenic mice. Capsaicin mustard oil and glutamate are other substances that elicit spontaneous nocifensive behaviors and also have been applied in the orofacial region in rats (Pelissier et al. 2002; Hartwig et al. 2003; Ro and Capra 2006) and mice (Quintans-Junior et al. 2010). In a study of chronic selleck kinase inhibitor constriction Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of the IoN in rats, Vit et al. (2006) measure the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical “eye-closure response” as an indication of pain, based on the paroxysms of pain in TN. They show that such eye-closure response can be temporarily blocked with an analgesic dose of during morphine and demonstrate an analgesic effect of an interfering-RNA directed against Cx43, a protein found in satellite Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical glial cells, thought to be implicated in neuropathic pain. Such method, once sufficiently validated, could be useful for the study of spontaneous neuropathic responses. Other spontaneous behaviors such as changes in weight, spontaneous grooming,

aggression, and other changes in behavior can be monitored Carfilzomib in pain studies (Mogil 2009). Vos et al. (1994) have quantified some of such behavior in their seminal article on the chronic constriction of the IoN. They found that animals with the constriction explored less, exhibited freezing like behavior, defecated more, and gained less weight compared with controls. However, such behavioral studies tend to be time consuming and difficult to quantify, and also it is difficult to ascertain whether they indicate stress, pain, paresthesia, or avoidance behavior and most studies performed in orofacial pain do not include measurements of such spontaneous behavior. The newly developed Rat and Mouse grimace scales, which measure facial “grimaces” of the rodents following a painful stimulus (so far, only used in nonhead areas (Langford et al. 2010; Sotocinal et al.